Urbanization and Sprawl

History

• 1950-1973
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Post-WWII Growth

After WWII, the United States entered a “Golden Age,” as the economy grew substantially and Americans experienced unprecedented prosperity.

• 1993
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Richard Florida

Over the past several decades, the New Urbanism movement — dedicated to reducing urban sprawl — has grown in popularity.

Introduction

As the American population rapidly increased and the economy became more industrialized, especially over the last century, people flocked to urban areas, a process known as urbanization. This urban growth has given way to urban sprawl as the population of these cities expands over an ever-increasing geographical area. Urban sprawl is known to have significant environmental, economic, and societal impacts. Proponents of a city-planning philosophy known as New Urbanism have developed theories on combating what they view as rampant urban expansion. In the coming years, American cities will likely continue to grow. How we prepare for and manage this growth will have long-lasting implications.

Post-WWII Growth

After World War II, the United States entered an era of unprecedented economic prosperity. The manufacturing industry boomed, and new loan programs gave many Americans the resources they needed to buy cars and single-family homes. Simultaneously, the rapid expansion of America’s roads through substantial infrastructure investment granted access to previously unreachable areas at the edge of cities. Compared to the inner-city, this new land was cheaper and more spacious. These developments represent the birth of the American suburbs, shifting the United States into an urban metropolis dominated by single-family homes, malls, and cars. This period is the beginning of the vast expanse of cities’ footprints today or urban sprawl.

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Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Company (1926) was a landmark Supreme Court case that greatly expanded localities’ powers regarding zoning, which observers say contributes significantly to urban sprawl. In 1922, Euclid, a suburb of Cleveland, Ohio, passed a zoning ordinance that divided the village into several districts and restricted the size and type of buildings in each one. These zoning restrictions severely limited the construction options of Ambler Realty Company, which owned property spanning several of these districts, prompting them to sue the village. They argued the ordinance violated their right to property and liberty under the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the 14th Amendment. Although a federal district court sided with Ambler, a 6-3 Court majority reversed that decision, finding that the zoning restrictions were a proper use of the government’s police powers. This case was the first federal test of local governments’ zoning ordinances and allowed municipalities across the country to enact stricter limits on development.

Characteristics

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Though there are no strict qualifications for what qualifies as ‘urban sprawl,’ there are several common traits. One major characteristic is unlimited expansion beyond the urban center. Another way observers identify cases of urban sprawl is when residential areas are majority single-family homes, especially those on large lots. A third typical component is the development of land far from the urban center, despite closer available plots, known as dispersed development. These areas are low-density, creating cheaper land prices (less demand) and more space between buildings. There is also often strip commercial development, with shops along main roads and highways. All of these contribute to the fourth feature, which is a heavy reliance on automobiles. By the early 21st century, the average American’s commute to work was 26.9 minutes, and the bulk of this was automobile travel.

Causes

While urban population growth certainly drives sprawl, it is not the sole cause. Urban sprawl is often the result of individuals prioritizing their lifestyle and economic interests, which sometimes contradicts what is best for the public more broadly. One such case is the desire for single-family housing, especially large single-family homes, a significant driver of urban sprawl. Single-use zoning creates areas with only one type of allowed development, such as commercial, institutional, or residential zones. American cities have used single-use zoning to create a multitude of single-family zones, promoting urban sprawl. This housing is often cheaper than in inner-city suburbs due to increasing standardization, wherein houses are almost identical, significantly reducing construction costs (cookie-cutter housing). Furthermore, strip commercial development pushes businesses outward rather than concentrating them in urban centers. Urban sprawl exists in a loop, where a lack of investment in mass public transit creates a heavy reliance on automobiles prompting more sprawl.

Impact

In Florida alone, estimates show that urbanization will deplete 2.4 million acres of farmland, increase dependency on automobiles, and ultimately lead to the release of more pollutants. New Urbanists such as Richard Florida have argued that density in a city is the best method of reducing sprawl by bringing people closer to everyday necessities. Local activism such as walkability movements and greenspace movements has amplified this message. However, some argue that the New Urbanist movement could spark gentrification.

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Urban sprawl has many widespread impacts on the environment, economy, and public health. Environmentalists say that expanding cities cause deforestation and interfere with wildlife and their habitat. Additionally, reliance on automobiles releases increased greenhouse gas emissions. The rapid expansion of cities also has significant commercial impacts. While commercial development can temporarily boost the economy, it also increases transportation and energy costs. As wealthier residents move from urban centers to the city outskirts, it weakens the city’s tax base, creating urban blight. Also, current city residents typically subsidize new construction through tax revenue, diverting allocated resources or causing the locality to raise taxes. This can create underfunded infrastructure and public services. Urban sprawl can also have a severe societal impact. Because residents have an increased reliance on their cars, they are less likely to exercise, increasing the risk of diabetes and obesity. Increased dependence on cars also worsens air quality, causing respiratory problems. Finally, with a lack of communal spaces within walking distance, many Americans cannot engage with their community, opting to spend more time in their homes than socializing.

Possible Alternatives

Most proposed alternatives to urban sprawl fall under the category of “New Urbanism.” New Urbanism’s basic premise is a city planning and urban design movement that prioritizes offering residents access to all the services they will need within their own neighborhood. Proponents of this design philosophy argue there are several possible steps to combat urban sprawl: substantially investing in public transit; reusing existing buildings instead of perpetual construction; encouraging commercial investment in urban centers; creating pedestrian-friendly amenities; and reforming existing zoning laws and development regulations to allow for more compact, mixed-use communities.

CNU

High-density residential buildings and commercial development increase congestion and crime, lowering property values. These policies have generated considerable controversy, making it difficult for cities to implement them. Opponents argue that New Urbanism could increase traffic congestion, strain mass transit, and discourage private investment as businesses flock to cities with less regulation. They also say that it could cause residents to move en masse, as low-density, quiet neighborhoods become high-density and noisy, and commercial development of the urban center could displace low-income communities.

1. Zoning restrictions are often in the way of building affordable apartment housing rather than single-family homes. Why do you feel that cities enact these restrictions?
2. How could park and ride systems or affordable apartment housing slow down urbanization?
3. Where have you noticed urbanization in your communities?